Which of the following models describes an atom with a central nucleus surrounded by electrons?

Rutherford's model of the atom significantly advanced the understanding of atomic structure by introducing the concept of a central nucleus. This model, proposed in 1911, was based on experimental results from the gold foil experiment, where alpha particles were directed at a thin sheet of gold. Surprisingly, many alpha particles passed through the foil, suggesting that most of the atom is empty space, while some were deflected at large angles, indicating the presence of a dense, positively charged nucleus.

In Rutherford's model, electrons are thought to orbit around this nucleus, similar to planets orbiting the sun. This model effectively explained the concentration of mass and positive charge in a small, dense nucleus while allowing for the electrons to exist in the surrounding space.

The other models present different characterizations of atomic structure. Thomson's model, also referred to as the "plum pudding" model, suggested that electrons were distributed throughout a positively charged "soup," lacking a distinct nucleus. Bohr's model refined Rutherford's concept by incorporating fixed electron orbits and quantized energy levels, which focuses on the specific paths that electrons take. The quantum mechanical model further develops the idea with probabilistic distributions of electrons, rather than fixed paths, emphasizing the wave-like nature of particles. Each